Scientists

Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy, on the 15th of February 1564, he died on the 8th of January 1642.

Galileo was a ground breaking astronomer, physicist, mathematician, philosopher and inventor. Among his inventions were telescopes, a compass and a thermometer.

Galileo enrolled to do a medical degree at the University of Pisa but never finished, instead choosing to study mathematics.

Galileo built on the work of others to create a telescope with around 3x magnification, he later improved on this to make telescopes with around 30x magnification.

With these telescopes, Galileo was able to observe the skies in ways previously not achieved. In 1610 he made observations of 4 objects surrounding Jupiter that behaved unlike stars, these turned out to be Jupiter’s for largest satellite moons: Io, Callisto, Europa and Ganymede. They were later renamed the Galilean satellites in honor of Galileo himself.

The discovery of these moons was not supported by the scientific principles of the time and Galileo had trouble convincing some people that he had indeed discovered such objects. This was similar to other ideas put forward by Galileo that were very controversial at the time.

The Geocentric model of the universe which was embraced by earlier astronomers had the Earth at the center of the universe with other objects moving around it. Work by Galileo, Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler helped to supercede this theory with the more accurate heliocentric model. Such a view of the universe differed strongly with the beliefs of the Catholic Church at the time and Galileo was forced to withdraw many of his ideas and even spent the final years of his life under house arrest.

Galileo refused to believe Kepler’s theory that the moon caused the tides, instead believing it was due to the nature of the Earth’s rotation (helping prove that even the smartest people can make mistakes).

Famous Galileo quotes include: “In questions of science the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.”

“See now the power of truth; the same experiment which at first glance seemed to show one thing, when more carefully examined, assures us of the contrary.”

 “Alas! Your dear friend and servant Galileo has been for the last month hopelessly blind; so that this heaven, this earth, this universe, which I by my marvelous discoveries and clear demonstrations had enlarged a hundred thousand times beyond the belief of the wise men of bygone ages, henceforward for me is shrunk into such a small space as is filled by my own bodily sensations.”

Charles Darwin was born in England on the 12th of February 1809, he died on the 19th of April 1882.

He is most famous for his work on natural selection, the idea that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors. This process involves favorable traits becoming more common in successive generations of living things while at the same time unfavorable traits become less common.

Not only did Darwin develop the idea of natural selection, he also presented compelling evidence from his detailed research which included a five year voyage on the HMS Beagle. On this voyage, Darwin visited ecologically diverse regions such as Brazil, Chile, Australia, the Falkland Islands and the Galapagos Islands.

His 1859 book ‘On the Origin of Species’, detailed much of his research on natural selection, it contained a large amount of evidence to back up his ideas and became a landmark work in the field of evolutionary biology.

Darwin’s ideas created a lot of discussion regarding the impact on various scientific, religious and philosophical viewpoints. Although most of those in educated society accepted the theory of evolution, many still challenge its existence despite the wealth of evidence supporting it.

Although in later life Darwin suffered from a range of illnesses, he continued with his research and undertook new experiments to help support his ideas while at the same time forming new ones in other fields.

Other famous work by Charles Darwin includes: ‘The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals’, ‘The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex’, ‘The Power of Movement in Plants’ and ‘The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms’.

Famous Charles Darwin quotes include: “Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relationship to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring.”

“We can allow satellites, planets, suns, universe, nay whole systems of universe, to be governed by laws, but the smallest insect, we wish to be created at once by special act.”

“I have watched how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it!”

Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician who lived from December the 27th 1571 to November the 15th 1630.

Kepler played a key role in the scientific revolution that occurred in the 17th century, contributing a number of scientific breakthroughs including his famous laws of planetary motion.

The three laws of planetary motion devised by Kepler are:

1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.

2. A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.

3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

Kepler was interested in astronomy from an early age, this interest was further piqued when he witnessed both a comet in 1577 as well as a lunar eclipse in 1580.

Kepler attended the University of Tübingen where he studied philosophy, excelled in mathematics, further developed his remarkable astronomy skills and even found time to create horoscopes for other students.

Kepler achieved much of his work around the same time as another famous astronomer, Galileo Galilei. The two often had disagreeing opinions but their concurrent work helped spur physics, philosophy and astronomy forward rapidly to a new level of understanding.

Kepler’s work on planetary motion helped Isaac Newton later devise his own theory of universal gravitation.

Some of Kepler’s famous work includes: Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos -1596), Astronomia nova (New Astronomy - 1609), Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds - 1619) and Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy - published between 1618 and 1621).

NASA honored Kepler by naming a mission after him. Launched on March 6 2009, the Kepler Mission involves a high-tech space telescope that will search for other Earth-like planets.

Famous Johannes Kepler quotes include: “Nature uses as little as possible of anything.”

“I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a single intelligent man to the thoughtless approval of the masses.”

“I used to measure the heavens, now I measure the shadows of Earth.”

“Geometry has two great treasures; one is the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The first we may compare to a measure of gold; the second we may name a precious jewel.

Louis Pasteur lived from December the 27th 1822 to September the 28th 1895 and was famous for his work on disease causes and prevention.

He is well known for inventing a process to stop food and liquid such as milk from making people sick. This method is called Pasteurization, it helps reduce the number of microorganisms that could cause disease while not affecting the quality and taste in a way which sterilization would.

Many of Pasteur’s experiments supported the germ theory of disease, they helped show that microorganisms are the true cause of many diseases. In earlier times people believed that diseases were spontaneously generated, over time this theory was superseded thanks to the work of Pasteur and many others.

Pasteur’s work also included breakthroughs in the field of chemistry. He discovered the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals, made discoveries related to the nature of tartaric acid and was the professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg.

Pasteur studied the immune system and vaccination through research on chicken cholera and other diseases. He helped produce the first vaccine for rabies, saving the life of a young boy in 1885 who became the first person to receive such treatment.

In honor of his work and influential contributions, Pastuer was made a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor, a prestigious French order.

Famous Louis Pasteur quotes include: “Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to humanity, and is the torch which illuminates the world.”

“I am on the edge of mysteries and the veil is getting thinner and thinner.”

“I am utterly convinced that Science and Peace will triumph over Ignorance and War, that nations will eventually unite not to destroy but to edify, and that the future will belong to those who have done the most for the sake of suffering humanity.”

“One does not ask of one who suffers: What is your country and what is your religion? One merely says: You suffer, that is enough for me”

Ernest Rutherford lived from the 30th of August 1871 to the 19th of October 1937.

Rutherford studied at Canterbury College, University of New Zealand before moving to England in 1895 for post graduate study at Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge.

Rutherford worked on radioactivity, coining the terms ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ to describe the two different types of radiation emitted by uranium and thorium. He also observed that radioactive material took the same amount of time for half of it to decay, known as its “half life”.

In 1907, Rutherford, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden carried out the Geiger-Marsden experiment, an attempt to examine the structure of the atom. The surprising results of this experiment demonstrated the existence of the atomic nucleus and became an integral part of the Rutherford model of the atom.

The Rutherford model of the atom was simplified in a well known symbol showing electrons circling around the nucleus like planets orbiting the sun. This symbol became popular and has been used by various organizations around the world as a symbol for atoms and atomic energy in general.

In 1908, Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the transmutation of elements and the chemistry of radioactive material.

The element 'rutherfordium' was named in Rutherford’s honor.

Famous Ernest Rutherford quotes include: “If you can't explain your physics to a barmaid it is probably not very good physics.”

“All science is either physics or stamp collecting.”

“Radioactivity is shown to be accompanied by chemical changes in which new types of matter are being continually produced. .... The conclusion is drawn that these chemical changes must be sub-atomic in character.”

Jane Goodall

·         Born on the 3rd of April 1934, Jane Goodall is a British primatologist, ethologist and anthropologist.

·         Goodall established the Jane Goodall Institute in 1977, it supports research while actively running a range of conservation programs to protect chimpanzees and the environment.

·         Goodall studied chimpanzees in great detail, learning how they lived in groups, problem solved and interacted with their environment. She discovered that chimpanzees had the mental capacity to not only use simple tools but to actually make them as well, something that was previously thought to be uniquely human.

·         Unlike most researchers, Goodall named the animals that were part of her studies, normally numbers were assigned in order to remove the possibility of the researcher becoming attached to the subjects. Her unique methods stood out and were at times subject to criticism.

·         Goodall’s work is similar to that of Dian Fossey, a famous American zoologist who completed a long study of Gorillas in Rwanda, releasing a book titled ‘Gorillas in the Mist’ which later went on to become a well known movie.

·         Goodall is a strong supporter of animal rights and has been part of many animal rights organizations. She was the president of Advocates for Animals from 1998 to 2008.

·         Goodall has been awarded many honors for her tireless work. These include the Kyoto Prize, the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science, the Rainforest Alliance Champion Award, The Primate Society of Great Britain Conservation Award, as well as being named as a United Nations Messenger of Peace in 2002.

Michael Faraday was born in England on the 22nd of September 1791 and died on the 25th of August 1867. His work on electrochemistry and electromagnetism laid the foundation for many areas of science. He formed the basis of the electromagnetic field concept in physics, discovered the laws of electrolysis, invented electromagnetic rotary devices that were vital in the creation of electric motors and played a key role in the development of electricity for use in technology. Not limited to physics and electromagnetism, Faraday also invented a simple Bunsen burner, coined terms such as electrode, cathode, anode and ion, discovered benzene and investigated the nature of chlorine. Faraday had only a basic education in a family that was not well off. He had only a minimal understanding of technical mathematical concepts but was still able to produce some of the most important scientific concepts in history and did so in a language that was clear and easily understood. Faraday was a man of honor who was strong in his convictions. He rejected both a knighthood and an offer to become President of the Royal Society as well turning down a burial in Westminster Abbey. He also refused to assist the British government in the production of chemical weapons for use in war. Famous Michael Faraday quotes include: “But still try, for who knows what is possible” “Nothing is too wonderful to be true, if it be consistent with the laws of nature” “There is no more open door by which you can enter into the study of natural philosophy than by considering the physical phenomena of a candle” “I was at first almost frightened when I saw such mathematical force made to bear upon the subject, and then wondered to see that the subject stood it so well.” Edwin Hubble was an American astronomer who lived from November the 20th 1889 to September the 28th 1953. Hubble made a huge impact on astronomy, and science in general, by demonstrating that other galaxies besides our own Milky Way existed. It was the previous belief of many that space was limited to the Milky Way galaxy, Hubble’s discoveries which were announced in 1925 changed our view of the universe. In his early years Hubble was a skilled athlete as well as a bright student, competing and achieving highly in track and field. At the University of Chicago, Hubble’s studies focused on mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. He became a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University soon after and also became a member of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity. Hubble discovered that the level of redshift in light coming from a galaxy increased in proportion to the distance as that galaxy moved further away from Earth. This is known as Hubble’s law and it helped prove that the universe is expanding. It even led Albert Einstein to admit that ignoring this idea and subsequently “fudging” his equations to avoid it was “the biggest blunder of his life”. The well known Hubble Space Telescope is named after Edwin Hubble. It has provided valuable research data and images since it was carried into orbit in 1990, leading to many breakthroughs in the field of astrophysics. Hubble has also been honored with an asteroid and moon crater being named after him. Pierre Curie Pierre Curie was a French physicist who made many breakthrough discoveries in radioactivity, crystallography and magnetism. Some of his contributions to science include: The Curie Point – a temperature level where ferromagnetic substances lost their ferromagnetic behavior, Curie’s Law – the effect of temperature on paramagnetism, demonstrating the electric potential of crystals when compressed, designing an extremely accurate torsion balance for measuring magnetic coefficients and his combined work on radiation, isolating polonium and radium with his wife Marie Curie. Marie Curie Marie Curie was a chemist and physicist famous for becoming the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes. She was brought up in Poland before eventually moving to France and obtaining French citizenship. After French physicist Henri Becquerel first discovered a strange source of energy coming from uranium (radioactivity), Marie Curie decided that this would make a good field for research. With the help of her husband and his vital electrometer, she made numerous scientific discoveries including showing that radiation did indeed come from the atom itself rather than an interaction between molecules. In 1911 Marie Curie was awarded another Nobel Prize, this time in Chemistry, for her discovery of radium and polonium and subsequent research. In 1932 Marie Curie founded the ‘Radium Institute’ in Warsaw, Poland. The name was changed after World War II to the ‘Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology’. The institute carries out specialized cancer research and treatment. Famous Marie Curie quotes include: “We must not forget that when radium was discovered no one knew that it would prove useful in hospitals. The work was one of pure science. And this is a proof that scientific work must not be considered from the point of view of the direct usefulness of it. It must be done for itself, for the beauty of science, and then there is always the chance that a scientific discovery may become like the radium a benefit for humanity.” “One never notices what has been done; one can only see what remains to be done.” ·         Stephen Hawking is a British theoretical physicist, he was born on January the 8th, 1942. ·         Hawking has made many important contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity. He is also well known for his bestselling book ‘A Brief History of Time’. ·         Helped by the success of his book ‘A Brief History of Time’, Hawking has released other books aimed at making his work accessible to a wide range of people, these include ‘The Universe in a Nutshell’, ‘A Briefer History of Time’ and ‘George's Secret Key to the Universe’, a children’s book with a strong focus on science. ·         Hawking has worked extensively on the subject of black holes, providing theories for their behavior, including the idea that they emit radiation. ·         Hawking suffers from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a type of motor neuron disease that has left him almost completely paralyzed. ·         Some of the awards Hawking has received for his work include the 1979 Albert Einstein Medal, the Order of the British Empire (Commander) in 1982 and the 1988 Wolf Prize in Physics. ·         Famous Stephen Hawking quotes include: “There ought to be something very special about the boundary conditions of the universe and what can be more special than that there is no boundary?” ·         “I don't believe that the ultimate theory will come by steady work along existing lines. We need something new. We can't predict what that will be or when we will find it because if we knew that, we would have found it already!” ·         “For millions of years, mankind lived just like the animals. Then something happened which unleashed the power of our imagination. We learned to talk and we learned to listen.” ·         “It is a waste of time to be angry about my disability. One has to get on with life and I haven't done badly. People won't have time for you if you are always angry or complaining.” ·         “I don't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I'm an optimist. We will reach out to the stars.” James Maxwell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on the 13th of June 1831 and died on the 5th of November 1879. He produced a set of equations, known as ‘Maxwell’s Equations’ that explain the properties of magnetic and electric fields and help show that light is an electromagnetic wave. His impressive work was described in papers such as ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, ‘A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field’ and ‘A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism’. Maxwell’s contributions played an important role in the advances made in 20th century physics and his work was often admired by fellow physicist Albert Einstein. Maxwell attended Edinburgh University from 1847 to 1850. He also spent a large amount of time at his home studying and undertaking various experiments. After his time at Edinburgh University, Maxwell moved on to Cambridge University where he remained from 1850 to 1856. He further developed his mathematical skills and other ideas before accepting a professorship at Aberdeen University in 1856. Maxwell was awarded a prize in1859 for his essay ‘On the Stability of Saturn's Rings’, which described the nature of Saturn’s rings as numerous small particles rather than a solid or fluid ring. A large amount of Maxwell’s research was based on the work of Michael Faraday, and although Maxwell was 40 years younger, the two meet each other on many occasions. Maxwell also made numerous contributions in the fields of color analysis, kinetic theory and thermodynamics. He is even attributed with creating the first true color photograph. Famous James Maxwell quotes include: “Aye, I suppose I could stay up that late.” – Said after being informed of a compulsory 6 a.m. church service at Cambridge University. “In every branch of knowledge the progress is proportional to the amount of facts on which to build, and therefore to the facility of obtaining data.”